Clicca qui per scaricare

Condividi
Persecution for reasons of membership of a particular social group: Intersectionality avant la lettre?
Titolo Rivista: SOCIOLOGIA DEL DIRITTO  
Autori/Curatori: Nora Markard 
Anno di pubblicazione:  2016 Fascicolo: 2  Lingua: Inglese 
Numero pagine:  19 P. 45-63 Dimensione file:  268 KB
DOI:  10.3280/SD2016-002004
Il DOI è il codice a barre della proprietà intellettuale: per saperne di più:  clicca qui   qui 


Il concetto di intersezionalità ha guadagnato sempre più terreno nel campo del diritto internazionale in materia di diritti umani. Ma, mentre il diritto internazionale sui rifugiati ha seguito gli sviluppi del diritto internazionale dei diritti umani attraverso il riconoscimento delle persecuzioni basate sul genere, il concetto di intersezionalità non ha avuto un’analoga svolta. Tuttavia, la definizione di rifugiato nella Convenzione di Ginevra del 1951 lascia ampio spazio per un’analisi intersezionale. Stabilendo che la persecuzione possa essere temuta per ragioni di razza, religione, nazionalità, opinione politica o "appartenenza a un particolare gruppo sociale", essa fornisce una categoria aperta definibile attraverso una molteplicità di fattori, come è necessario per rispecchiare le ragioni della persecuzione nei singoli casi. In effetti le corti hanno fatto uso di questa categoria in occasione di istanze intersezionali, anche se incontrando ostacoli. Un’analisi preliminare indica che un collegamento più esplicito con il concetto di intersezionalità potrebbe rappresentare un potenziale ulteriore per il diritto internazionale dei rifugiati.

The concept of intersectionality has been gaining ground in the area of international human rights. But while international refugee law has followed the developments in human rights law by recognizing gender-based persecution, the concept of intersectionality has not seen a similar breakthrough. However, the definition of a refugee in the 1951 Geneva Convention leaves ample room for an intersectional analysis; by requiring that persecution be feared for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or "membership of a particular social group", it provides an open category that can be defined by a multiplicity of factors, as needed to reflect the reasons for persecution in the individual case. Indeed, courts have made use of this category for intersectional claims, albeit with obstacles. A preliminary analysis suggests that a more explicit engagement with the concept of intersectionality has additional potential to offer for international refugee law
Keywords: Diritto dei rifugiati - Diritti umani - Intersezionalità - Genere

  1. African Rights, 1995. Rwanda – Not So Innocent: When Women Become Killers. London: African Rights.
  2. Aleinikoff, Alexander T., 2003. Protected Characteristics and Social Perceptions: An Analysis of the Meaning of ‘Membership of a Particular Social Group’. In Erika Feller, Volker Türk & Frances Nicholson (eds.), Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR’s Global Consultations on International Protection. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press., DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511493973.014
  3. Anker, Deborah, 2002. Refugee Law, Gender and the Human Rights Paradigm. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 15: 133-54.
  4. Arbel, Efrat, Catherine Dauvergne & Jenni Millbank (eds.), 2014. Gender in Refugee Law: From the Margins to the Centre. London: Routledge.
  5. Baer, Susanne, 2016. Intersectional Discrimination and Fundamental Rights in Germany. Sociologia del diritto, 2: 65-86.
  6. Bello, Barbara G., 2016. From “Books” To “Action”: Has Protection Against Dicrimination Become Intersectional in Italy? Sociologia del diritto, 2: 189-221.
  7. Bissland, Julie, & Kathleen Lawand, 1997. Report of the UNHCR Symposium on Gender-Based Persecution. International Journal of Refugee Law 9, special issue: 13-31.
  8. Bassiouni, Cherif, 1994. Final Report of the United Nations Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780. New York: United Nations.
  9. Brownmiller, Susan, 1975. Against our Will: Men, Women and Rape. London: Martin, Secker & Warburg.
  10. Carpenter, R. Charli, 2006a. Recognizing Gender-Based Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations. Security Dialogue, 37, 1: 83–103., DOI: 10.1177/0967010606064139
  11. ―, 2006b. “Innocent Women and Children”: Gender, Norms and the Protection of Civilians. London: Ashgate.
  12. CAT, 2007. General Comment No. 2: Implementation of article 2 by States parties. Reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, Vol. II, 376-83.
  13. CEDAW, 2004. General Recommendation No. 25, on article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, on temporary special measures. Available at: http://www.refworld.org/docid/453882a7e0.html (accessed 22 December 2015).
  14. CERD, 2000. General Recommendation No. 25 on Gender-Related Dimensions of Racial Discrimination. Reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, Vol. II (2008), 287-88.
  15. ―, 2002. General Recommendation No. 29 on article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (Descent). Reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, II (2008): 296-301.
  16. CESCR, 2005. General Comment No. 16: The Equal Right of Men and Women to the Enjoyment of All Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 3). Reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, I (2008): 113-123.
  17. Charlesworth, Hilary, & Christine Chinkin, 2000. The Boundaries of International Law: A Feminist Analysis. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  18. CRC, 2006. General Comment No. 9: The Rights of Children with Disabilities. Reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9, II (2008): 497-519.
  19. Davis, Aisha Nicole, 2015. Intersectionality and International Law: Recognizing Complex Identities on the Global Stage. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 28, 1: 205-242.
  20. Edwards, Alice, 2003. Age and Gender Dimensions in International Refugee Law. In Erika Feller, Volker Türk & Frances Nicholson (eds.), Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR’s Global Consultations on International Protection. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press., DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511493973.006
  21. EXCOM, 1985. EXCOM Conclusions No. 39 (XXXVI): Refugee Women and International Protection, Doc. No. 12 A (A/40/12/Add.1).
  22. Foster, Michelle, 2007. International Refugee Law and Socio-Economic Rights: Refuge from Deprivation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  23. ―, 2012. The ‘Ground with the Least Clarity’: A Comparative Study of Jurisprudential Developments Relating to ‘Membership of a Particular Social Group’. Geneva: UNHCR Division of International Protection. Legal and Protection Policy Research Series, PPLA/2012/02.
  24. Goldfarb, Phyllis, 1996. Describing Without Circumscribing: Questioning the Construction of Gender in the Discourse of Intimate Violence. George Washington Law Review, 64, 3: 582-631.
  25. Goodwin-Gill, Guy S., & Jane McAdam, 2007. The Refugee in International Law. 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  26. Greatbach, Jacqueline, 1989. The Gender Difference: Feminist Critiques of Refugee Discourse. International Journal of Refugee Law, 1, 4: 518-527.
  27. Hailbronner, Kay, & Simone Alt, 2010. Article 10 Qualification Directive. In Kay Hailbronner (ed.), EU Immigration and Asylum Law. Munich: C.H. Beck.
  28. Haines, Rodger, 2003. Gender-related Persecution. In Erika Feller, Volker Türk & Frances Nicholson (eds.), Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR’s Global Consultations on International Protection. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press., DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511493973
  29. Happold, Matthew, 2002. Excluding Children from Refugee Status: Child Soldiers and Article 1F of the Refugee Convention. American University International Law Review, 17, 6: 1131-1176.
  30. Hathaway, James C., 1991. The Law of Refugee Status. Toronto: Butterworths.
  31. ―, 2005. The Rights of Refugees under International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  32. ―, & Michelle Foster, 2003. Membership of a Particular Social Group. International Journal of Refugee Law, 15, 3: 477-491.
  33. ―, & Michelle Foster, 2014. The Law of Refugee Status. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  34. Hruschka, Constantin, & Tillmann Löhr, 2009. Das Konventionsmerkmal “Zugehörigkeit zu einer bestimmten sozialen Gruppe” und seine Anwendung in Deutschland. Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht, 2009, 4: 205-211.
  35. Indra, Doreen, 1987. Gender: A Key Dimension of the Refugee Experience. Refuge 6, 3: 3-4.
  36. Jones, Adam, 2006. Straight as a Rule: Heteronormativity, Gendercide, and the Noncombatant Male. Men and Masculinities, 8: 451-469., DOI: 10.1177/1097184X04268797
  37. LaViolette, Nicole, 2010. ‘UNHCR Guidance Note on Refugee Claims Relating to Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity’: a Critical Commentary. International Journal of Refugee Law, 22, 2: 173-208.
  38. LaViolette, Nicole, 2011. Les identités multiples et le droit des réfugiés. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 35, 3: 39-54.
  39. Löhr, Tillmann, 2009. Die kinderspezifische Auslegung des völkerrechtlichen Fluchtlingsbegriffs. Baden-Baden: Nomos.
  40. MacKinnon, Catharine A., 2006. Rape, Genocide, and Women’s Human Rights. In Catharine A. MacKinnon (ed.), Are Women Human? And Other International Dialogs. Cambridge, MA & London: Harvard University Press.
  41. Macklin, Audrey, 1995. Refugee Women and the Imperative of Categories. Human Rights Quarterly, 17, 2: 213-277.
  42. Markard, Nora, 2007. Fortschritte im Flüchtlingsrecht? Gender Guidelines und geschlechtsspezifische Verfolgung. Kritische Justiz 40, 4: 373-390., DOI: 10.5771/0023-4834-2007-4-373
  43. ―, 2008. Subsidiärer Schutz gegen allgemeine Kriegsgefahren. Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht, 11: 1206-1209.
  44. ―, 2012. Kriegsflüchtlinge. Gewalt gegen Zivilpersonen in bewaffneten Konflikten als Herausforderung für das Flüchtlingsrecht und den subsidiären Schutz. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
  45. Mathews, Penelope, James C. Hathaway & Michelle Foster, 2003. The Role of State Protection in Refugee Analysis: Discussion Paper No. 2, Advanced Refugee Law Workshop, International Association of Refugee Law Judges, Auckland, New Zealand, October 2002. International Journal of Refugee Law, 15, 3: 444-460.
  46. Musalo, Karen, & Stephen Knight, 2001. Steps Forward and Steps Back: Uneven Progress in the Law of Social Group and Gender-Based Claims in the United States. International Journal of Refugee Law, 13, 1/2: 51-70.
  47. Noonan, John T., 2015. Lazo-Majano: Alive, Well, and Thriving at Twenty-Seven. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 28, 1: 1-10.
  48. Oosterveld, Valerie, 2012: Women and Girls Fleeing Conflict: Gender and the Interpretation and Application of the 1951 Refugee Convention. UNHCR Division of International Protection, Legal and Protection Policy Research Series, PPLA/2012/06. Geneva: UNHCR.
  49. Skran, Claudena M., 2011. Historical Development of International Refugee Law. In Andreas Zimmermann (ed.), The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. A Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  50. Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, 2009. 15 years of the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, its Causes and Consequences (1994-2009): A Critical Review. UN Doc. A/HRC/11/6/Add.5, 27 May. Geneva: United Nations.
  51. Türk, Volker, 2013. Ensuring Protection to LGBTI Persons of Concern. International Journal of Refugee Law, 25, 1: 120-129.
  52. Turshen, Meredeth, 2001. The Political Economy of Rape: An Analysis of Systematic Rape and Sexual Abuse of Women During Armed Conflict in Africa. In Caroline O.M. Moser & Fiona C. Clark (eds.), Victims, Perpetrators or Actors: Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence. London & New York: Zed Books.
  53. United Nations, 1951. United Nations General Assembly Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons. Summary Record of the Third Meeting held at Geneva, 3 July. UN Doc. A/Conf.2/SR.3.
  54. United Nations, 1995. Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China, 4-15 September 1995), Platform for Action, 17 October. UN Doc. A/CONF.177/20. Geneva: United Nations.
  55. UNHCR, 2003. Guidelines on International Protection: “Membership of a Particular Social Group” Within the Context of Article 1A (2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. UN Doc. HCR/GIP/02/02. Geneva: UNHCR.
  56. UNHCR, 2012. Guidelines on International Protection No. 9: Claims to Refugee Status Based on Sexual Orientation and/or Gender Identity within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. UN Doc. HCR/GIP/12/09. Geneva: UNCHR.
  57. Zarkov, Dubravka, 2001. The Body of the Other Man: Sexual Violence and the Construction of Masculinity, Sexuality and Ethnicity in Croatian Media. In Caroline O.M. Moser & Fiona C. Clark (eds.), Victims, Perpetrators or Actors: Gender, Armed Conflict and Political Violence. London & New York: Zed Books.
  58. Zimmermann, Andreas, & Claudia Mahler, 2011. Article 1 A, para. 2. In Andreas Zimmermann (ed.), The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and Its 1967 Protocol. A Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nora Markard, in "SOCIOLOGIA DEL DIRITTO " 2/2016, pp. 45-63, DOI:10.3280/SD2016-002004

   

FrancoAngeli è membro della Publishers International Linking Association associazione indipendente e no profit per facilitare l'accesso degli studiosi ai contenuti digitali nelle pubblicazioni professionali e scientifiche