Integrating and differentiating personality and psychopathology: A psychodynamic perspective

Journal title PSICOTERAPIA E SCIENZE UMANE
Author/s Patrick Luyten, Peter Fonagy
Publishing Year 2024 Issue 2024/1
Language Italian Pages 28 P. 45-72 File size 267 KB
DOI 10.3280/PU2024-001003
DOI is like a bar code for intellectual property: to have more infomation click here

Below, you can see the article first page

If you want to buy this article in PDF format, you can do it, following the instructions to buy download credits

Article preview

FrancoAngeli is member of Publishers International Linking Association, Inc (PILA), a not-for-profit association which run the CrossRef service enabling links to and from online scholarly content.

Come emerge da una lunga tradizione psicodinamica, diverse linee di ricerca empirica oggi convergono nel suggerire che personalità e psicopatologia possono essere integrate in un modello gerarchico. Vengono innanzitutto riassunte le prove empiriche a sostegno di due presupposti chiave dell’approccio psicodinamico alla personalità e alla psicopatologia: 1) è necessario che un approccio evolutivo centrato sulla persona si integri con un approccio statico centrato sul disturbo; 2) è meglio concettualizzare la personalità e la psicopatologia come tentativi di adattamento. La ricerca in queste aree supporta l’idea che la personalità e la psicopatologia sono difficili da separare e possono essere moderate dalla gravità della psicopatologia. Viene poi discusso un nuovo approccio socio-comunicativo allo sviluppo umano che suggerisce che la personalità e la psicopatologia vanno concettualizzate come un disturbo della comunicazione sociale, e che la loro presunta rigidità e stabilità sono meglio spiegate dai fattori ambientali che le sostengono piuttosto che da tratti stabili della personalità. Vengono infine discusse le implicazioni di queste concezioni anche per il trattamento.

Keywords: Personalità; Psicopatologia; Approcci psicodinamici; Classifi-cazione in psichiatria; Approccio socio-comunicativo

  1. Feinstein A.R. (1970). The pre-therapeutic classification of co-morbidity in chronic disease. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 23, 7: 455-468. DOI: 10.1016/0021-9681(70)90054-8
  2. Allison E. & Fonagy P. (2016). When is truth relevant? Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 85, 2: 275-303.
  3. American Psychiatric Association (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition (DSM-III). Washington, D.C.: APA (trad. it.: DSM-III. Manuale diagnostico e statistico dei disturbi mentali. Terza edizione. Milano: Masson, 1983).
  4. American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition, Revised (DSM-III-R). Washington, D.C.: APA. (trad. it.: DSM-III-R. Manuale diagnostico e statistico dei disturbi mentali, Terza edizione, riveduta. Milano: Masson, 1988).
  5. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV). Washington, D.C.: APA (trad. it. basata sulla “Versione internazionale con i codici dell’ICD-10” del 1995: DSM-IV. Manuale diagnostico e statistico dei disturbi mentali. Quarta edizione. Milano: Masson, 1995).
  6. American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Washington, D.C.: APA (trad. it.: DSM-5. Manuale diagnostico e statistico dei disturbi mentali. Quinta edizione. Milano: Raffaello Cortina, 2014).
  7. Andrews G., Stewart G., Morris-Yates A., Holt P. & Henderson S. (1990). Evidence for a general neurotic syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1: 6-12.
  8. Angold A., Costello E.J. & Erkanli A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 1: 57-87. DOI: 10.1111/1469-7610.00424
  9. Barlow D.H., Sauer- Zavala S., Carl J.R., Bullis J.R. & Ellard K.K. (2014). The nature, diagnosis, and treatment of neuroticism. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 3: 344-365. DOI: 10.1177/2167702613505532
  10. Baumert A., Schmitt M., Perugini M., Johnson W., Blum G., Borkenau P., Costantini G., Denissen J.J.A., Fleeson W., Grafton B., Jayawickreme E., Kurzius E., MacLeod C., Miller L.C., Read S.J., Roberts B., Robinson M.D., Wood D., Wrzus C. & Mõttus R. (2017). Integrating personality structure, personality process, and personality development. European Journal of Personality, 31, 5: 503-528.
  11. Beauchaine T.P. & Cicchetti D. (2016). A new generation of comorbidity research in the era of neuroscience and Research Domain Criteria. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 4 (1): 891-894. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579416000602
  12. Bebbington P.E., Cooper C., Minot S., Brugha T.S., Jenkins R., Meltzer H. & Dennis M. (2009). Suicide attempts, gender, and sexual abuse: Data from the 2000 British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 10: 1135-1140.
  13. Blatt S.J. (2006). Una polarità fondamentale in psicoanalisi: implicazioni per lo sviluppo della personalità, la psicopatologia e il processo terapeutico. Psicoterapia e Scienze Umane, 40, 4: 743-764.
  14. Blatt S.J. (2008). Polarities of Experiences: Relatedness and Self-definition in Personality Development, Psychopathology and the Therapeutic Process. Foreword by Peter Fonagy. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
  15. Blatt S.J. & Luyten P. (2010). Reactivating the psychodynamic approach to classify psychopathology. In: Millon T., Krueger R.F. & Simonsen E., editors, Contemporary Directions in Psychopathology. Scientific Foundations of the DSM-5 and ICD-11. New York: Guilford, 2010, pp. 483-514.
  16. Bleidorn W., Hopwood C.J., Back M.D., Denissen J.J.A., Hennecke M., Jokela M., Kandler C., Lucas R.E., Luhmann M., Orth U., Roberts B.W., Wagner J., Wrzus C. & Zimmermann J. (2020). Longitudinal experience-wide association studies. A framework for studying personality change. European Journal of Personality, 34, 3: 285-300.
  17. Bonanno G.A. & Diminich E.D. (2013). Annual research review: Positive adjustment to adversity – trajectories of minimal-impact resilience and emergent resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 4: 378-401.
  18. Budde M., Anderson-SchmidtH., Gade K., Reich-Erkelenz D., Adorjan K., Kalman J.L., Senner F., Papiol S., Andlauer T.F.M., Comes A.L., Schulte E.C., Klöhn-Saghatolislam F., Gryaznova A., Hake M., Bartholdi K., Flatau L., Reitt M., Quast S., Stegmaier S., ... Heilbronner U. (2018). A longitudinal approach to biological psychiatric research: The PsyCourse study. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 180, 2: 89-102.
  19. Caspi A., Houts R.M., Belsky D.W., Goldman-Mellor S.J., Harrington H.L., Israel S., Meier M.H., Ramrakha S., Shalev I., Poulton R. & Moffitt T.E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders? Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 2: 119-137. DOI: 10.1177/2167702613497473
  20. Caspi A., Houts R.M., Belsky D.W., Harrington H., Hogan S., Ramrakha S., Poulton R. & Moffitt T.E. (2016). Childhood forecasting of a small segment of the population with large economic burden. Nature Human Behaviour, 1: 0005.
  21. Caspi A. & Moffitt T.E. (2018). All for one and one for all: Mental disorders in one dimension. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 9: 831-844.
  22. Caspi A., Roberts B.W. & Shiner R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 4: 453-484.
  23. Cicchetti D. (2016). Developmental Psychopathology. Vol. 3: Maladaptation and Psychopathology. New York: Wiley.
  24. Cicchetti D. & Rogosch F.A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8: 597-600. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579400007
  25. Cierpka M., Grande T., Rudolf G., von der Tann M. & Stasch M. (2007). The operationalized psychodynamic diagnostics system: Clinical relevance, reliability and validity. Psychopathology, 40, 4: 209-220. DOI: 10.1159/000101363
  26. Csibra G. & Gergely G. (2009). Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 4: 148-153.
  27. Cummings C.M., Caporino N.E. & Kendall P.C. (2014). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: 20 years after. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 3: 816-845.
  28. de Vries Y.A., Al- Hamzawi A., Alonso J., Borges G., Bruffaerts R., Bunting B., Caldas-de-Almeida J.M., Cia A.H., de Girolamo G., Dinolova R.., Esan, O., Florescu S., Gureje O., Haro J.M., HuC., Karam, E.G., Karam A., Kawakami N., Kiejna A., Kovess-Masfety V., Lee S., Mneimneh Z., Navarro-Mateu F., Piazza M., Scott K., ten Have M., Torres Y., Viana M.C., Kessler R.C. & de Jonge P. on behalf of the WHO World Mental Health Survey Collaborators (2019). Childhood generalized specific phobia as an early marker of internalizing psychopathology across the lifespan: Results from the World Mental Health Surveys. BMC Medicine, 17: 101.
  29. Del Giudice M. (2015). The life history model of psychopathology ex-plains the structure of psychiatric disorders and the emergence of the p factor. Clinical Psychological Science, 4, 2: 299-311. DOI: 10.1177/2167702615583628
  30. Distel M.A., Trull T.J., Derom C.A., Thiery E.W., Grimmer M.A., Martin N.G., Willemsen G., & Boomsma D.I. (2008). Heritability of borderline personality disorder features is similar across three countries. Psychological Medicine, 38, 9: 1219-1229. DOI: 10.1017/S0033291707002024
  31. Ein-Dor T., Mikulincer M., Doron G. & Shaver P.R. (2010). The attachment paradox: How can so many of us (the insecure ones) have no adaptive advantages? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 2: 123-141. DOI: 10.1177/1745691610362349
  32. Ellis B.J., Boyce W.T., Belsky J., Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J. & van Ijzendoorn M.H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary-neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1: 7-28. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579410000611
  33. Farrell M., Howes S., Bebbington P., Brugha T., Jenkins R., Lewis G., Marsden J., Taylor C. & Meltzer H. (2003). Nicotine, alcohol and drug dependence, and psychiatric comorbidity. Results of a national household survey. International Review of Psychiatry, 15, 1/2: 50-56. DOI: 10.1080/0954026021000045949
  34. Fonagy P. & Luyten P. (2018). Conduct problems in youth and the RDoC approach: A developmental, evolutionary-based view. Clinical Psychology Review, 64: 57-76.
  35. Fonagy P., Luyten P. & Allison E. (2015). Epistemic petrification and the restoration of epistemic trust: A new conceptualization of borderline personality disorder and its psychosocial treatment. Journal of Personality Disorders, 29, 5: 575-609.
  36. Fonagy P., Luyten P., Allison E. & Campbell C. (2017a). What we have changed our minds about: Part 1. Borderline personality disorder as a limitation of resilience. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 4: 11.
  37. Fonagy P., Luyten P., Allison E. & Campbell C. (2017b). What we have changed our minds about: Part 2. Borderline personality disorder, epistemic trust and the developmental significance of social communication. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 4: 9.
  38. Fonagy P., Target M. & Gergely G. (2006). Psychoanalytic perspectives on developmental psychopathology. In: Cicchetti D. & Cohen D.J., editors, Developmental Psychopathology, Vol. 1, Second Edition. New York: Wiley, 2006, pp. 701-749.
  39. Forbes M.K., Tackett J.L., Markon K.E. & Krueger R.F. (2016). Beyond comorbidity: Toward a dimensional and hierarchical approach to understanding psychopathology across the life span. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 4 (1): 971-986. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579416000651
  40. Fraley R.C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 2: 123-151. DOI: 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_03
  41. Fraley R.C. (2019). Attachment in adulthood: Recent developments, emerging debates, and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 70: 401-422.
  42. Fraley R.C. & Brumbaugh C.C. (2004). A dynamical systems approach to conceptualizing and studying stability and change in attachment security. In: Rholes W.S. & Simpson J.A., editors, Adult Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Implications. New York: Guilford, 2004, pp. 86-132.
  43. Fraley R.C., Vicary A.M., Brumbaugh C.C. & Roisman G.I. (2011). Patterns of stability in adult attachment: An empirical test of two models of continuity and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 5: 974-992.
  44. Gödel I. (1933). On intuitionistic arithmetic and number theory. In: Travis M., editor, The Undecidable: Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems and Computable Functions. New York: Raven Press, 1933, pp. 75-81.
  45. Goldberg D. (2015). Psychopathology and classification in psychiatry. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50, 1: 1-5.
  46. Gosling S.D. & John O.P. (1999). Personality dimensions in nonhuman animals: A cross-species review. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 3: 69-75. DOI: 10.1111/1467-8721.00017
  47. Haslam N., McGrath M.J., Viechtbauer W. & Kuppens P. (2020). Dimensions over categories: A meta-analysis of taxometric research. Psychological Medicine, 50, 9: 1418-1432. DOI: 10.1017/S003329172000183X
  48. Henrich J. (2020). The WEIRDest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
  49. Holmes J. (2004). Disorganized attachment and borderline personality disorder: A clinical perspective. Attachment and Human Development, 6, 2: 181-190. DOI: 10.1080/14616730410001688202
  50. Hutsebaut J., Debbané M. & Sharp C. (2020). Designing a range of mentalizing interventions for young people using a clinical staging approach to borderline pathology. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 7: 6.
  51. Kernberg O.F. & Caligor E. (2005). A psychoanalytic theory of personality disorders. In: Lenzenweger M.F. & Clarkin J.F., editors, Major Theories of Personality Disorder. Second Edition. New York: Guilford, 2005, pp. 114-156. Prima edizione: Clarkin J.F. & Lenzenweger M.F., editors, Major Theories of Personality Disorder. New York: Guilford, 1996 (trad. it.: I disturbi di personalità. Le cinque principali teorie. Milano: Raffaello Cortina, 1997).
  52. Kessler R.C., Chiu W.T., Demler O., Merikangas K.R. & Walters E.E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 6: 617-627.
  53. Kessler R.C., Ormel J., Petukhova M., McLaughlin K.A., Green J.G., Russo L.J., Stein D.J., Zaslavsky A.M., Aguilar- Gaxiola S., Alonso J., Andrade L., Benjet C., de Girolamo G., de Graaf R., Demyttenaere K., Fayyad J., Haro J.M., Hu C.Y., Karam A., Lee S., Lepine J.P., Matchsinger H, Mihaescu-Pintia C., Posada-Villa J., Sagar R. & Üstün T.B. (2011). Development of lifetime comorbidity in the World Health Organization world mental health surveys. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 1: 90-100.
  54. Kim-Cohen J., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E., Harrington H., Milne B.J. & Poulton R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 7: 709-717.
  55. Kopala-Sibley D.C., Klein D.N., Perlman G. & Kotov R. (2017). Self- criticism and dependency in female adolescents: Prediction of first onsets and disentangling the relationships between personality, stressful life events, and internalizing psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 8: 1029-1043.
  56. Kotov R., Jonas K.G., Carpenter W.T., Dretsch M.., Eaton, N.R., Forbes M.K., Forbush K.T., Hobbs K., Reininghaus U., Slade T., South S.C., Sunderland M., Waszczuk M.A., Widiger T.A., Wright A.G.C., Zald D.H., Krueger R.F. & Watson D. (2020). Validity and utility of Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): I. Psychosis superspectrum. World Psychiatry, 19, 2: 151-172.
  57. Laceulle O.M., Vollebergh W.A.M. & Ormel J. (2015). The structure of psychopathology in adolescence: Replication of a general psychopathology factor in the TRAILS study. Clinical Psychological Science, 3, 6: 850-860. DOI: 10.1177/2167702614560750
  58. Lahey B.B., Rathouz P.J., Keenan K., Stepp S.D., Loeber R. & Hipwell A.E. (2015). Criterion validity of the general factor of psychopathology in a prospective study of girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 4: 415-422.
  59. Leadbeater B.., Kuperminc, G.P., Blatt S.J. & Hertzog C. (1999). A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. Developmental Psychology, 35, 5: 1268-1282. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.35.5.1268
  60. Lingiardi V. & McWilliams N., editors (2017). Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual, Second Edition: PDM-2. New York: Guilford (trad. it.: Manuale Diagnostico Psicodinamico. Seconda Edizione: PDM-2. Milano: Raffaello Cortina, 2018).
  61. Lupien S.J., McEwen B.S., Gunnar M.R. & Heim C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 6: 434-445.
  62. Luyten P. & Blatt S.J. (2011). Integrating theory-driven and empirically-derived models of personality development and psychopathology: A proposal for DSM-V. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1: 52-68.
  63. Luyten P. & Blatt S.J. (2013). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition in normal and disrupted personality development: Retrospect and prospect. American Psychologist, 68, 3: 172-183.
  64. Luyten P., Campbell C., Allison E. & Fonagy P. (2020). The mentalizing approach to psychopathology: State of the art and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 16: 297-325.
  65. Luyten P., Campbell C. & Fonagy P. (2020). Borderline personality disorder, complex trauma, and problems with self and identity: A social-communicative approach. Journal of Personality, 88, 1: 88-105.
  66. Luyten P. & Fonagy P. (2018). The stress-reward-mentalizing model of depression: An integrative developmental cascade approach to child and adolescent depressive disorder based on the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) approach. Clinical Psychology Review, 64: 87-98.
  67. Luyten P., Lowyck B. & Blatt S.J. (2017). Mechanisms of change through the lens of two-polarities models of personality development: State of the art and new directions. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 37, 3: 179-190. DOI: 10.1080/07351690.2017.1285187
  68. Luyten P., Mayes L.C., Target M. & Fonagy P. (2012). Developmental research. In: Gabbard G.O., Litowitz B. & Williams P., editors, Textbook of Psychoanalysis. Second Edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 2012, pp. 423-442 (Prima edizione: Psicoanalisi: teoria, clinica, ricerca [2005]. Milano: Raffaello Cortina, 2006).
  69. Main M. & Hesse E. (1990). Adult lack of resolution of attachment-related trauma related to infant disorganized/disoriented behavior in the Ainsworth Strange Situation: Linking parental states of mind to infant behavior in a stressful situation. In: Greenberg M.T., Cicchetti D., & Cummings E.M., editors, Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990, pp. 339-426.
  70. Malone J.C.Jr. & Cruchon N.M. (2001). Radical behaviorism and the rest of psychology: A review/précis of Skinner’s “About Behaviorism”. Behavior and Philosophy, 29: 31-57.
  71. Mascaro O. & Sperber D. (2009). The moral, epistemic, and min-dreading components of children’s vigilance towards deception. Cognition, 112, 3: 367-380.
  72. McWilliams N. (2011). Psychoanalytic Diagnosis: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process. Second Edition (First Edition: 1994). New York: Guilford (trad. it.: La diagnosi psicoanalitica. Roma: Astrolabio, 2012 [Prima edizione: 1999]).
  73. Merikangas K.R., He J.-P., Burstein M., Swanso S. A., Avenevoli S., Cui L., Benjet C., Georgiades K. & Swendsen J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication – Adolescent Supplement (NCS- A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 10: 980-989.
  74. Mikulincer M. & Shaver P.R. (2007). Attachment in Adulthood: Structure, Dynamics and Change. New York: Guilford.
  75. Mischel W., & Shoda, Y. (1998). Reconciling processing dynamics and personality dispositions. Annual Review of Psychology, 49: 229-258.
  76. Moritz S., Kempke S., Luyten P., Randjbar S. & Jelinek L. (2011). Was Freud partly right on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)? Investigation of latent aggression in OCD. Psychiatry Research, 187, 1/2: 180-184.
  77. Murray A.L., Eisner M. & Ribeaud D. (2016). The development of the general factor of psychopathology “p factor” through childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 8: 1573-1586.
  78. Ormel J., Raven D., van Oort F., Hartman C.A., Reijneveld S.A., Veenstra R., Vollebergh W.A.M., Buitelaar J., Verhulst F.C. & Oldehinkel A.J. (2015). Mental health in Dutch adolescents: A TRAILS report on prevalence, severity, age of onset, continuity and co-morbidity of DSM disorders. Psychological Medicine, 45, 2: 345-360. DOI: 10.1017/S0033291714001469
  79. Pinquart M., Feußner C. & Ahnert L. (2013). Meta-analytic evidence for stability in attachments from infancy to early adulthood. Attachment and Human Development, 15, 2: 189-218. DOI: 10.1080/14616734.2013.746257
  80. Roberts B.W. & Robins R.W. (2004). Person-environment fit and its implications for personality development: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality, 72, 1: 89-110.
  81. Rözer J., Kraaykamp G. & Huijts T. (2016). National income inequality and self-rated health: The differing impact of individual social trust across 89 countries. European Societies, 18, 3: 245-263. DOI: 10.1080/14616696.2016.1153697
  82. Rözer J.J. & Volker B. (2016). Does income inequality have lasting effects on health and trust? Social Science and Medicine, 149: 37-45.
  83. Ruggero C.J., Kotov R., Hopwood C.J., First M., Clark L.A., Skodol A.E., Mullins-Sweatt S.N., Patrick C.J., Bach B.O., Cicero D.C., Docherty A., Simms L.J., Bagby R.M., Krueger R.F., Callahan J.L., Chmielewski M., Conway C.C., De Clercq B., Dornbach-Bender A., Eaton N.R., Forbes M.K., Forbush K.T., Haltigan J.D., Miller J.D., Morey L.C., Patalay P.R., Darrel A., Reininghaus U., Shackman A.J., Waszczuk M.A. Watson D., Wright A.G.C. & Zimmermann J. (2019). Integrating the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) into clinical practice. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 87, 12: 1069-1084.
  84. Russ E., Shedler J., Bradle, R. & Westen D. (2008). Refining the construct of narcissistic personality disorder: Diagnostic criteria and subtypes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 11: 1473-1481.
  85. Salaminios G., Morosan L., Toffel E., Tanzer M., Eliez S., Badoud D., Armando M. & Debbané M. (2020). Associations between schizotypal personality features, mentalizing difficulties and thought problems in a sample of community adolescents. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 15, 3: 705-715.
  86. Schaefer J.D., Caspi A., Belsky D.W., Harrington H., Houts R., Horwood L.J., Hussong A., Ramrakha S., Poulton R. & Moffitt T.E. (2017). Enduring mental health: Prevalence and prediction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 2: 212-224.
  87. Shedler J., Beck A., Fonagy P., Gabbard G.O., Gunderson J., Kernberg O., Michels R. & Westen D. (2010). Personality disorders in DSM-5. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 9: 1026-1028.
  88. Skodol A.E. (2012). Personality disorders in DSM-5. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8: 317-344.
  89. Southwick S.M., Bonanno G.A., Masten A.S., Panter-Brick C. & Yehuda R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5: 1.
  90. Sperber D., Clement F., Heintz C., Mascaro O., Mercier H., Origgi G. & Wilson D. (2010). Epistemic vigilance. Mind & Language, 25, 4: 359-393.
  91. Stevanovic D., Jafari P., Knez R., Franic T., Atilola O., Davidovic N., Bagheri Z. & Lakic A. (2017). Can we really use available scales for child and adolescent psychopathology across cultures? A systematic review of cross- cultural measurement invariance data. Transcultural Psychiatry, 54, 1: 125-152. DOI: 10.1177/1363461516689215
  92. Tomasello M. (2010). Origins of Human Communication. Boston, MA: MIT Press (trad. it.: Le origini della comunicazione umana. Milano: Raffaello Cortina, 2009).
  93. Tomasello M. & Vaish A. (2013). Origins of human cooperation and morality. Annual Review of Psychology, 64: 231-255.
  94. Torgersen S., Myers J., Reichborn-Kjennerud T., Roysamb E., Kubarych T.S. & Kendler K.S. (2012). The heritability of Cluster B personality disorders assessed both by personal interview and questionnaire. Journal of Personality Disorders, 26, 6: 848-866.
  95. Tyrer P.J. (1985). Neurosis divisible? Lancet, 1, 8430: 685-688.
  96. Tyrer P.J. (1990). The division of neurosis: A failed classification. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 83, 10: 614-616. DOI: 10.1177/014107689008301006
  97. Vandenkerckhove B., Vansteenkiste M., Brenning K., Boncquet M., Flamant N., Luyten P. & Soenens B. (2020). A longitudinal examination of the interplay between personality vulnerability and need-based experiences in adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 6: 1145-1161.
  98. Verhage M.L., Fearon R.M.P., Schuengel C., van IJzendoorn M.H., Bakermans-Kranenburg M.J., Madigan S., Roisman G.I., Oosterman M., Behrens K.Y., Wong M.S., Mangelsdorf S., Priddis L.E. & Brisch K.-H. (2018). Examining ecological constraints on the intergenerational transmission of attachment via individual participant data meta-analysis. Child Development, 89, 6: 2023-2037.
  99. Waddington C.H. (1957). The Strategy of the Genes. London: Allen & Unwin (in italiano, vedi: L’evoluzione di un evoluzionista. A cura di Franco Voltaggio. Roma: Armando, 1979).
  100. Weisz J.R., Chorpita B.F., Palinkas L.A., Schoenwald S.K., Miranda J., Bearman S.K., Daleiden E.L., Ugueto A.M., Ho A., Martin J. & Gray J. (2012). Testing standard and modular designs for psychotherapy treating depression, anxiety, and conduct problems in youth: A randomized effectiveness trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 3: 274-282.
  101. Westen D., Shedler J., Durrett C., Glass S. & Martens A. (2003). Personality diagnoses in adolescence: DSM- IV axis II diagnoses and an empirically derived alternative. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 5: 952-966.
  102. Westen D. & Weinberger J. (2004). When clinical description be-comes statistical prediction. American Psychologist, 59, 7: 595-613. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.59.7.595
  103. Westen D., Shedler J. & Bradley R. (2006). A prototype approach to personality disorder diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 5: 846-856.
  104. Westen D., Shedler J., Bradley R. & DeFife J.A. (2012). An empirically derived taxonomy for personality diagnosis: Bridging science and practice in conceptualizing personality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 3: 273-284.
  105. Wilson D. & Sperber D. (2012). Meaning and Relevance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Patrick Luyten, Peter Fonagy, Integrare e differenziare la personalità e la psicopatologia. Una prospettiva psicodinamica in "PSICOTERAPIA E SCIENZE UMANE" 1/2024, pp 45-72, DOI: 10.3280/PU2024-001003