It’s time for a change: Reflections on useful paradigms in the study of learning disorders from the RDoC perspective

Journal title RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA
Author/s Chiara Valeria Marinelli, Paola Angelelli, Marialuisa Martelli
Publishing Year 2023 Issue 2022/4
Language Italian Pages 44 P. 99-142 File size 0 KB
DOI 10.3280/rip2022oa15716
DOI is like a bar code for intellectual property: to have more infomation click here

View article Download Open Access article

FrancoAngeli is member of Publishers International Linking Association, Inc (PILA), a not-for-profit association which run the CrossRef service enabling links to and from online scholarly content.

The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) perspective proposes to initiate a broad program of studies that is not tied to specific behavioral diagnoses (as in the DSM or ICD) but addresses mental disorders in an integrated way, considering different levels of analysis and the developmental context in which they develop. To do this, in their target article Antonietti and colleagues propose to use research paradigms different from those used to date. In this perspective, it is analyzed how the case-control paradigm (widely used to date) does not consider the frequent comorbidities present with various ASDs nor the effect of practice (a problem often, but ineffectively, addressed by the “reading level match”). Furthermore, using dyslexia as an example, it is illustrated how studies based on these paradigms have generated a wide variety of results that do not allow for convergence on a unitary interpretation. Alternatively, in line with the RDoC rationale, one can think of studies that consider samples of unselected children or children with “mixed” disorders, i.e., in which there is “at least” one learning disorder, and that do not have a single target behavior but address multiple behaviors together. However, it is also emphasized that it is necessary to think about different studies and paradigms that separately address the complexity of learning behaviors from the perspective of multilevel analysis. Finally, a study is presented that exemplifies some of the characteristics of the RDoC perspective. In this, it is shown how the ability of an unselected group of children to construct consolidated representations of individual events (instances) predicts performance in reading, spelling, and computation tasks in which reference to prior knowledge is important (such as spelling words with ambiguous transcription) but not in those that require reference to a specific algorithm to be solved (such as spelling pseudo-words).

Keywords: ; RDoC; DSM; Paradigms; Dyslexia; Learning disabilities; Comorbidity

  1. Sackett, D.L., Richardson, W.S., Rosenberg, W., Haynes, R.B. (2000). Evidence-based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach. 2. ed. Edinburgh: Churchill-Livingstone.
  2. American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  3. Ahissar, M. (2007). Dyslexia and the anchoring-deficit hypothesis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(11), 458-465. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.015.
  4. American Psychiatric Association (1968). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
  5. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
  6. Angelelli, P., Marinelli, C. V., Iaia, M., Putzolu, A., Gasperini, F., Brizzolara, D., & Chilosi, A. M. (2016). Spelling impairments in Italian dyslexic children with and without a history of early language delay. Are there any differences?. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 527. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00527.
  7. Antonietti, A., Borgatti, R., & Giorgetti, M. (2022). Cambiare paradigma per i disturbi del neurosviluppo? Dalla ricerca alla pratica clinica. Ricerche di Psicologia, 45, 1-12. DOI: 10.3280/rip2022oa14921.
  8. Astle, D. E., Holmes, J., Kievit, R., & Gathercole, S. E. (2022). Annual Research Review: The transdiagnostic revolution in neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(4), 397-417. DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13481.
  9. Backman, J. E., Mamen, M., & Ferguson, H. B. (1984). Reading level design: Conceptual and methodological issues in reading research. Psychological Bulletin, 96(3), 560-568. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.96.3.560.
  10. Bamber, D. (1979). State-trace analysis: A method of testing simple theories of causation. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 19(2), 137-181. DOI: 10.1016/0022-2496(79)90016-6.
  11. Banfi, C., Koschutnig, K., Moll, K., Schulte- Körne, G., Fink, A., & Landerl, K. (2019). White matter alterations and tract lateralization in children with dyslexia and isolated spelling deficits. Human Brain Mapping, 40(3), 765-776. DOI: 10.1002/hbm.24410.
  12. Bertoni, S., Franceschini, S., Puccio, G., Mancarella, M., Gori, S., & Facoetti, A. (2021). Action video games enhance attentional control and phonological decoding in children with developmental dyslexia. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 171. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11020171.
  13. Bishop, D. V. (1997). Cognitive neuropsychology and developmental disorders: Uncomfortable bedfellows. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A, 50(4), 899-923. DOI: 10.1080/713755740.
  14. Bosse, M.L., Tainturier, M.J., & Valdois, S. (2007). Developmental dyslexia: The visual attention span deficit hypothesis. Cognition, 104, 198-230. DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.009.
  15. Brizzolara, D., Pecini, C., Chilosi, A., Cipriani, P., Gasperini, F., Mazzotti, S., Di Filippo G. and Zoccolotti, P., (2006). Do phonological and rapid automatized naming deficits differentially affect dyslexic children with and without a history of language delay? A study on Italian dyslexic children. Cognitive and Behavioural Neurology, 19, 141-149. DOI: 10.1097/01.wnn.0000213902.59827.19.
  16. Bruck, M. (1992). Persistence of dyslex’cs’ phonological awareness deficits. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 874-886. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.874.
  17. Bryant, P., MacLean, M., & Bradley, L. (1990). Rhyme, language, and child’en’s reading. Applied Psycholinguistics, 11, 237-252. DOI: 10.1017/S0142716400008870.
  18. Bucci, M. P., Brémond-Gignac, D., & Kapoula, Z. (2008a). Latency of saccades and vergence eye movements in dyslexic children. Experimental Brain Research, 188, 1-12. DOI: 10.1007/s00221-008-1345-5.
  19. Bucci, M. P., Brémond-Gignac, D., & Kapoula, Z., (2008b). Poor binocular coordination of saccades in dyslexic children. Graefe’s Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, 246(3), 417-428. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-007-0723-1.
  20. Burgess, P. W. (1997). Theory and Methodology in Executive Function Research. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.). Methodology of Frontal and Executive Function. London: Routledge, pp. 87-121.
  21. Castles, A., Bates, T., & Coltheart, M. (2006). John Marshall and the developmental dyslexias. Aphasiology, 20(9), 871-892. DOI: 10.1080/02687030600738952.
  22. Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (1993). Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition, 47, 149-180. DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(93)90003-E.
  23. Cheng, D., Xiao, Q., Chen, Q., Cui, J., & Zhou, X. (2018). Dyslexia and dyscalculia are characterized by common visual perception deficits. Developmental Neuropsychology, 43(6), 497-507. DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2018.1481068.
  24. Chilosi, A.M., Brizzolara, D., Lami, L. Pizzoli, C., Gasperini, F., Pecini, C. and Zoccolotti, P. (2009). Reading and spelling disabilities in children with and without a history of early language delay: a neuropsychological and linguistic study. Child Neuropsychology, 15, 582-604. DOI: 10.1080/09297040902927614.
  25. Chomsky, N. (1966). Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.
  26. Clark, L. A., Cuthbert, B., Lewis-Fernández, R., Narrow, W. E., & Reed, G. M. (2017). Three approaches to understanding and classifying mental disorder: ICD-11, DSM-5, and the National Institute of Mental Health’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC). Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(2), 72-145. DOI: 10.1177/1529100617727266.
  27. CNEC (Centro Nazionale per l’Eccellenza Clinica, la Qualità e la Sicurezza delle Cure) Manuale metodologico per la produzione di linee guida di pratica clinica. (https://snlg.iss.it/wpcontent/uploads/2019/04/MM_v1.3.2_apr_2019.pdf).
  28. Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204-256. DOI: 10.1037//0033-295X.108.1.204.
  29. Consensus Conference (2007) Disturbi evolutivi specifici di apprendimento. Raccomandazioni per la pratica clinica definite con il metodo della Consensus Conference. Montecatini Terme, 22-23 settembre 2006, Milano 26 gennaio 2007. Scaricabile da: https://www.aiditalia.org/Media/Documents/consensus/indicazioni_consensus_DSA2007.pdf.
  30. Cuthbert, B. N. (2014). The RDoC framework: facilitating transition from ICD/DSM to dimensional approaches that integrate neuroscience and psychopathology World Psychiatry, 13, 28-35. DOI: 10.1002/wps.20087.
  31. Dehaene, S. (1992). Varieties of numerical abilities. Cognition, 44(1-2), 1-42. DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(92)90049-N.
  32. Denckla, M.B., & Rudel, R.G. (1976). Rapid ‘automatized’ naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471-479. DOI: 10.1016/0028-3932(76)90075-0.
  33. Devoto, F., Carioti, D., Danelli, L., & Berlingeri, M. (2022). A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies on developmental dyslexia across European orthographies: the ADOD model. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 37(3), 285-314. DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2021.1970200.
  34. Erbeli, F., Rice, M., & Paracchini, S. (2021). Insights into dyslexia genetics research from the last two decades. Brain Sciences, 12(1), 27. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12010027.
  35. Facoetti, A., Trussardi, A. N., Ruffino, M., Lorusso, M. L., Cattaneo, C., Galli, R., ... & Zorzi, M. (2010). Multisensory spatial attention deficits are predictive of phonological decoding skills in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 22, 1011-1025. DOI: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21232.
  36. Farmer, M.E., & Klein, R. M. (1995). The evidence for a temporal processing deficit linked to dyslexia: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 2, 460-493. DOI: 10.3758/BF03210983.
  37. Fawcett, A. J., Nicolson, R. I., & Dean, P. (1996). Impaired performance of children with dyslexia on a range of cerebellar tasks. Annals of Dyslexia, 46(1), 259-283. DOI: 10.1007/BF02648179.
  38. Flaugnacco, E., Lopez, L., Terribili, C., Montico, M., Zoia, S., & Schön, D. (2015). Music training increases phonological awareness and reading skills in developmental dyslexia: A randomized control trial. PloS one, 10(9), e0138715. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138715.
  39. Fraga González, G., Karipidis, I.I., & Tijms, J. (2018). Dyslexia as a neurodevelopmental disorder and what makes it different from a chess disorder. Brain Sciences, 8, 189. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8100189.
  40. Gabay, Y., Vakil, E., Schiff, R., & Holt, L. L. (2015). Probabilistic category learning in developmental dyslexia: Evidence from feedback and pairedassociate weather prediction tasks. Neuropsychology, 29(6), 844. DOI: 10.1037/neu0000194.
  41. Galuschka, K., Ise, E., Krick, K., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2014). Effectiveness of treatment approaches for children and adolescents with reading disabilities: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PloS one, 9(2), e89900. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089900.
  42. Georgitsi, M., Dermitzakis, I., Soumelidou, E., & Bonti, E. (2021). The polygenic nature and complex genetic architecture of specific learning disorder. Brain Sciences, 11(5), 631. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11050631.
  43. Gialluisi, A., Andlauer, T. F., Mirza-Schreiber, N., Moll, K., Becker, J., Hoffmann, P., ... & Schulte-Körne, G. (2021). Genome-wide association study reveals new insights into the heritability and genetic correlates of developmental dyslexia. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(7), 3004-3017. DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-00898-x.
  44. Goswami, U., (2011). A temporal sampling framework for developmental dyslexia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 3-10. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.10.001.
  45. Goswami, U. (2015). Sensory theories of developmental dyslexia: Three challenges for research. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(1), 43-54. DOI: 10.1038/nrn3836.
  46. Guyatt, G., Rennie, D., Meade, M. O. & Cook, D. J. (2015) Users’ Guides to the Medical Literature: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Practice, 3rd ed. New York, USA: McGraw Hill Education & The JAMA Network.
  47. Habib, M. (2000). The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: An overview and working hypothesis. Brain 123, 2373-2399. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11060708.
  48. Habib, M. (2021). The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia and related disorders: A reappraisal of the temporal hypothesis, twenty years on. Brain Sciences, 11(6), 708. DOI: 10.1093/brain/123.12.2373.
  49. Hämäläinen, J.A., Salminen, H.K., & Leppänen, P.H. (2013). Basic auditory processing deficits in dyslexia: Systematic review of the behavioral and event-related potential/field evidence. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46, 413-427. DOI: 10.1177/002221941143621.
  50. Hermann, J. A., Matyas, T., & Pratt, R. (2006). Meta-analysis of the nonword reading deficit in specific reading disorder. Dyslexia, 12(3), 195-221. DOI: 10.1002/dys.324.
  51. Houghton, G., & Zorzi, M. (2003). Normal and impaired spelling in a connectionist dual-route architecture. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20(2), 115-162. DOI: 10.1080/02643290242000871.
  52. Huettig, F., Lachmann, T., Reis, A., & Petersson, K. M. (2018). Distinguishing cause from effect-many deficits associated with developmental dyslexia may be a consequence of reduced and suboptimal reading experience. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 33(3), 333-333. DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2017.1348528.
  53. Istituto Superiore di Sanità (2011). Consensus Conference, Disturbi Specifici dell’Apprendimento. Sistema nazionale per le linee guida Ministero della Salute. Roma, 6-7 dicembre 2010. Scaricabile da: https://www.aiditalia.org/Media/Documents/consensus/Cc_Disturbi_Apprendimento.pdf.
  54. Kershner, J. R. (2019). Neurobiological systems in dyslexia. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 14, 11-24. DOI: 10.1016/j.tine.2018.12.001.
  55. Kirby, J. R., Georgiou, G. K., Martinussen, R., & Parrila, R. (2010). Naming speed and reading: from prediction to instruction. Reading Research Quarterly 45, 341-362. DOI: 10.1598/RRQ.45.3.4.
  56. Kwok, R. K. W., and Ellis, A. W. (2015). Visual word learning in skilled readers of English. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 326-349. DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2014.944549.
  57. Landerl, K., & Moll, K. (2010). Comorbidity of learning disorders: prevalence and familial transmission. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(3), 287-294. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02164.x.
  58. Laprevotte, J., Papaxanthis, C., Saltarelli, S., Quercia, P., & Gaveau, J. (2021). Movement detection thresholds reveal proprioceptive impairments in developmental dyslexia. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1-7. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79612-4.
  59. Liberman, I. Y., & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problems of learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education, 6(6), 8-17. DOI: 10.1177/074193258500600604.
  60. Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95, 492-527. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.95.4.492.
  61. Logan, G. D. (1992). Shapes of reaction-time distributions and shapes of learning curves: A test of the instance theory of automaticity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(5), 883-914. DOI: 10.1037/0278-7393.18.5.883.
  62. Lohvansuu, K., Torppa, M., Ahonen, T., Eklund, K., Hämäläinen, J. A., Leppänen, P. H., & Lyytinen, H. (2021). Unveiling the mysteries of dyslexia - Lessons learned from the prospective Jyväskylä longitudinal study of dyslexia. Brain Sciences, 11(4), 427. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11040427.
  63. Luo, Y., Wang, J., Wu, H., Zhu, D., & Zhang, Y. (2013). Working-memory training improves developmental dyslexia in Chinese children. Neural Regeneration Research, 8(5), 452. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.05.009.
  64. Judica, A., De Luca, M., Spinelli, D., & Zoccolotti, P. (2002). Training of developmental surface dyslexia improves reading performance and shortens eye fixation duration in reading. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 12, 177-197. DOI: 10.1080/09602010244000002.
  65. Marinelli, C.V., Angelelli, P., Martelli, M., Trenta, M., & Zoccolotti, P. (2021). Ability to consolidate instances as a proxy for the association among reading, spelling, and math learning skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 761696. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.761696.
  66. Marshall, J. C. (1984). Toward a rational taxonomy of the developmental dyslexias. In R. N. Malatesha & H. A. Whitaker (Eds.), Dyslexia: A global issue. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
  67. Martelli, M., Di Filippo, G., Spinelli, D., & Zoccolotti, P. (2009). Crowding, reading and developmental dyslexia. Journal of Vision 9, 1-18. DOI: 10.1167/9.4.14.
  68. Martens, V. E. G., and de Jong, P. F. (2008). Effects of repeated reading on the length effect in word and pseudoword reading. Journal of Research in Reading 31, 40-54. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2007.00360.x.
  69. McCloskey M., Caramazza A., & Basili, A. (1985). Cognitive mechanisms in number processing and calculation: evidence from dyscalculia. Brain and Cognition, 4, 2, 171-96. DOI: 10.1016/0278-2626(85)90069-7.
  70. Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S.A., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 138, 322-352. DOI: 10.1037/a0026744.
  71. Mervis, C. B., & Klein-Tasman, B. P. (2004). Methodological issues in groupmatching designs: α levels for control variable comparisons and measurement characteristic s of control and target variables. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(1), 7-17. DOI: 10.1023/b:jadd.0000018069.69562.b8.
  72. Richlan, F. (2020). The functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia across languages and writing systems. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 155. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00155.
  73. Moll, K., Landerl, K., Snowling, M. J., & Schulte-Körne, G. (2019). Understanding comorbidity of learning disorders: task-dependent estimates of prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(3), 286-294. DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12965.
  74. Moreau, D., Stonyer, J. E., McKay, N. S., & Waldie, K. E. (2018). No evidence for systematic white matter correlates of dyslexia: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis. Brain Research, 1683, 36-47. DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2018.02.004.
  75. Morton, J., Frith, U. (1995). Causal Modeling: A Structural Approach to Developmental Psychopathology, in D. Cicchetti, D. J. Cohen (eds.), Developmental Psychopathology, vol. 1: Theory and Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 357-90.
  76. Newell, A., and Rosenbloom, P. S. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice, in J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive Skills and their Acquisition. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, pp. 1-55.
  77. Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1990). Automaticity: A new framework for dyslexia research?. Cognition, 35, 159-182. DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(90)90013-A.
  78. Paracchini, S. (2022). The Genetics of Dyslexia: Learning from the Past to Shape the Future, in M. J. Snowling, C. Hulme, & K. Nation, The Science of Reading: A Handbook. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 491-514. DOI: 10.1002/9781119705116.ch22.
  79. Pozzo, T., Vernet, P., Creuzot-Garcher, C., Robichon, F., Bron, A., & Quercia, P. (2006). Static postural control in children with developmental dyslexia. Neuroscience Letters, 403, 211-215. DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.03.049.
  80. Pennington, B.F. (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition, 101, 385-413. DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008.
  81. Pennington, B. F., & Bishop, D. V. (2009). Relations among speech, language, and reading disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 283-306. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163548.
  82. Pontillo, M., De Luca, M., Ellis, A. W., Marinelli, C. V., Spinelli, D., and Zoccolotti, P. (2014). Failure to learn a new format in developmental dyslexia. Scientific Reports 4, 4869. DOI: 10.1038/srep04869.
  83. Protopapas, A., & Parrila, R. (2018). Is dyslexia a brain disorder?. Brain Sciences, 8(4), 61. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8040061.
  84. Protopapas, A., & Parrila, R. (2019). Dyslexia: Still not a neurodevelopmental disorder. Brain Sciences, 9(1), 9. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9010009.
  85. Raberger, T., & Wimmer, H. (2003). On the automaticity/cerebellar deficit hypothesis of dyslexia: Balancing and continuous rapid naming in dyslexic and ADHD children. Neuropsychologia, 41(11), 1493-1497. DOI: 10.1016/S0028-3932(03)00078-2.
  86. Rack, J. P., Snowling, M. J., & Olson, R. K. (1992). The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 29-53. DOI: 10. 2307/747832.
  87. Ramus, F., & Ahissar, M., (2012). Developmental dyslexia: The difficulties of interpreting poor performance, and the importance of normal performance. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 29, 104-122. DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2012.677420.
  88. Raddatz, J., Kuhn, J. T., Holling, H., Moll, K., & Dobel, C. (2017). Comorbidity of arithmetic and reading disorder: Basic number processing and calculation in children with learning impairments. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(3), 298-308. DOI: 10.1177/0022219415620899.
  89. Raymond, J.E., & Sorensen, R.E. (1998). Visual motion perception in children with dyslexia: Normal detection but abnormal integration. Visual Cognition, 5, 389-404. DOI: 10.1080/713756790.
  90. Shallice, T. (1988). From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  91. Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523-568. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.523.
  92. Smith, S.D., Pennington, B.F., Boada, R., & Shriberg, L.D. (2005). Linkage of speech sound disorder to reading disability loci. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1045-1056. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01534.x.
  93. Stein, J. & Walsh, V. (1997). To see but not to read: the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends in Neurosciences, 20, 147-152. DOI: 10.1016/S0166-2236(96)01005-3.
  94. Swanson, H.L., Zheng, X., & Jerman, O. (2009). Working memory, short-term memory, and reading disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42, 260-287. DOI: 10.1177/0022219409331958.
  95. Szmalec, A., Duyck, W., Vandierendonck, A., Mata, A. B., & Page, M. P. (2009). Short article: The Hebb repetition effect as a laboratory analogue of novel word learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(3), 435-443. DOI: 10.1080/17470210802386375.
  96. Tainturier, M. J., & Rapp, B. (2001). The spelling process. In B. Rapp (Ed.), The handbook of cognitive neuropsychology: What deficits reveal about the human mind (pp. 263-289). Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
  97. Tallal, P. (1980). Auditory temporal perception, phonics, and reading disabilities in children. Brain and Language, 9, 182-198. DOI: 10.1016/0093-934X(80)90139-X.
  98. Tannock, R. (2013). Rethinking ADHD and LD in DSM-5: Proposed changes in diagnostic criteria. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(1), 5-25. DOI: 10.1177/0022219412464341.
  99. Thomas, M. & Karmiloff-Smith, A., (2002). Are developmental disorders like cases of adult brain damage? Implications from connectionist modelling. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25, 727-788. DOI: 10.1017/S0140525X02000134.
  100. Thomson, J. M., Leong, V., & Goswami, U. (2013). Auditory processing interventions and developmental dyslexia: A comparison of phonemic and rhythmic approaches. Reading and Writing, 26(2), 139-161. DOI: 10.1007/s11145-012-9359-6.
  101. van de Walle de Ghelcke, A., Skoura, X., Edwards, M. G., Quercia, P., & Papaxanthis, C. (2021). Action representation deficits in adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Journal of Neuropsychology, 15(2), 215-234. DOI: 10.1111/jnp.12220.
  102. Van Den Bosch, K., van Bon, W. H., & Schreuder, R. (1995). Poor readers’ decoding skills: Effects of training with limited exposure duration. Reading Research Quarterly, 30 (1), 110-125. DOI: 10.2307/747747.
  103. van den Broeck, W. & Geudens, A. (2012). Old and new ways to study characteristics of reading disability. The case of the nonword reading deficit. Cognitive Psychology, 65, 414-456. DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.06.003.
  104. van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bus, A. G. (1994). Meta-analytic confirmation of the nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(3), 267-275. DOI: 10.2307/747877.
  105. Vanderauwera, J., Wouters, J., Vandermosten, M., & Ghesquière, P. (2017). Early dynamics of white matter deficits in children developing dyslexia. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 27, 69-77. DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2017.08.003.
  106. van Witteloostuijn, M., Boersma, P., Wijnen, F., & Rispens, J. (2017). Visual artificial grammar learning in dyslexia: A meta-analysis. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 70, 126-137. DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.09.006.
  107. Varvara, P., Varuzza, C., Padovano Sorrentino, A.C., Vicari, S., & Menghini, D. (2014). Executive functions in developmental dyslexia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 120. DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00120.
  108. Vicari, S., Marotta, L., Menghini, D., Molinari, M., & Petrosini, L. (2003). Implicit learning deficit in children with developmental dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 41(1), 108-114. DOI: 10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00082-9.
  109. Vidyasagar, T.R., & Pammer, K. (2010). Dyslexia: a deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 57-63. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.003.
  110. Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Olson, R. K., Chhabildas, N., & Hulslander, J. (2005). Neuropsychological analyses of comorbidity between reading disability and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: In search of the common deficit. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27(1), 35-78. DOI: 10.1207/s15326942dn2701_3.
  111. Wimmer, H., Mayringer, H., & Raberger, T. (1999). Reading and dual-task balancing: Evidence against the automatization deficit explanation of developmental dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32(5), 473-478. DOI: 10.1177/002221949903200513.
  112. Wybrow, D. P., & Hanley, J. R. (2015). Surface developmental dyslexia is as prevalent as phonological dyslexia when appropriate control groups are employed. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 32(1), 1-13. DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2014.998185.
  113. World Health Organization (1993). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: diagnostic criteria for research. World Health Organization.
  114. Zoccolotti, P., De Luca, M., Di Pace, E., Judica, A., Orlandi, M., & Spinelli, D. (1999). Markers of developmental surface dyslexia in a language (Italian) with high grapheme-phoneme correspondence. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 191-216. DOI: 10.1017/S0142716499002027.
  115. Zoccolotti, P., (2020a). Putting the identification of dyslexia into a multi-level perspective. Brain Sciences, 10(10), 661. DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10100661.
  116. Zoccolotti, P., (2020b). The reading level matched design: limitations and possible alternatives. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 37(7-8), 523-534. DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2020.1809364.
  117. Zoccolotti, P., De Luca, M., Marinelli, C.V., & Spinelli, D. (2020). Testing the specificity of predictors of reading, spelling and maths: A new model of the association among learning skills based on competence, performance and acquisition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 573998. DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.573998.

Chiara Valeria Marinelli, Paola Angelelli, Marialuisa Martelli, E' tempo di cambiare: riflessioni sui paradigmi utili nello studio dei disturbi dell’apprendimento nella prospettiva RDoC in "RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA" 4/2022, pp 99-142, DOI: 10.3280/rip2022oa15716